Written constitutions are always

Analyze the question The question asks which feature is associated with written constitutions. Note that "always" signals the textbook generalization.

Explain the concept Constitutions are classified in two main ways:

• Written constitution: contained in one or more formal documents (e.g., Nigeria's 1999 Constitution, the USA's Constitution).
• Unwritten constitution: based on conventions, customs, court decisions and scattered laws (e.g., the United Kingdom).

In the same way, constitutions are classified by how easy they are to amend:

• Rigid: amendment needs a special, difficult procedure (e.g., two-thirds majority in the legislature plus approval by state assemblies).
• Flexible (pliable): can be amended by the ordinary legislative process.

Written constitutions are typically rigid because their provisions are fixed in a formal document, and they usually set out special procedures for amendment. For example, in Nigeria, amending the 1999 Constitution requires a two-thirds majority in the National Assembly and approval by at least two-thirds of the State Houses of Assembly (that is, 24 of 36 states).

Step by step elimination

• A. Unwritten: contradicts the term "written", so it is wrong.
• B. Rigid: matches the textbook position, since written constitutions are generally rigid.
• C. Pliable: this means flexible, which is the opposite of rigid, so it is wrong.
• D. Flexible: the same as pliable, so it is wrong.

(Note: in strict political science there are exceptions, as some written constitutions can be fairly flexible, but among the options given, "rigid" is the expected answer.)

Answer: B. Rigid

Exam tip Remember the pairings: Written = Rigid (like the Nigerian and American constitutions) and Unwritten = Flexible (like Britain's). Also, if two options mean the same thing (pliable and flexible), neither is likely to be the answer.