Dual citizenship was a feature of the

1. Analyze the question The question asks which colonial system allowed "dual citizenship". This is about colonial administrative policies in Africa.

2. Explain the concept Colonial powers governed in different ways:

• British: Indirect Rule. Colonies were governed through traditional rulers. Colonial subjects remained "British protected persons" or subjects. They were not made citizens of Britain.
• French: Assimilation and Association. The French aimed to turn Africans into "Black Frenchmen" through French language and culture. Africans in the four communes of Senegal (Dakar, Saint-Louis, Rufisque, Gorée) were full French citizens. Others were "subjects" under the indigénat code. Assimilated Africans (évolués) could hold French citizenship while also being members of their native communities. Because of this, Africans could hold both their native status and French citizenship, and the French system is the one traditionally associated with dual citizenship.
• Portuguese: Used the assimilado system, which divided people into "civilised" and "indigenous" groups, but it is usually described as a policy of assimilation, not dual citizenship.
• German: Short-lived, with direct and harsh rule and no such citizenship arrangement.

3. Solution

• British: no, because Africans were subjects and not citizens.
• German: no.
• Portuguese: the assimilado system was similar, but it is not the standard answer for dual citizenship.
• French: yes. Under assimilation, Africans could gain French citizenship (especially in the four communes) while keeping ties to their native culture and law, which is the dual citizenship feature.

4. Answer

5. Exam tip Link the keywords to the colonial power:

• British = Indirect Rule
• French = Assimilation, so citizenship and "dual" status
• Portuguese = assimilado and forced labour
• German = harsh direct rule

Whenever you see "citizenship" or "assimilation" in a colonial question, think French.